Ancient 'Incendiary Agent' Devastates Foes of Byzantium - Ancient Byzantium's Foes Wiped Out by the "Napalm of Its Time"
Ancient Warfare: The Byzantines' Deadly "Ancient Napalm"
By Gernot Kramper | Approx. Reading Time: 5 minutes
The Roman Empire's military might was well-documented, with legions known for their discipline and complex battle strategies. However, the successor state, the Byzantine Empire, held a secret weapon that prolonged its existence by more than a millennium. Enemies encircling the territories of Byzantium, now modern-day Istanbul, were thwarted by a type of "ancient napalm:" Greek Fire.
This incendiary substance was the imperial secret closely guarded from one ruler to the next, until the empire's fall in 1453. Despite extensive efforts by modern scientists and historians, the precise formula remains elusive. Experiments have revealed combinations of oil, saltpeter, and resins with properties similar to Greek Fire, such as self-ignition and water resistance, but the exact composition is yet to be unveiled.
Archeological findings of fire-spewing devices in Constantinople offer additional clues, yet their inconclusive nature adds to the enigma.
Unforeseen Power of the "Antiquity's Napalm"
Fire weapons were common during warfare, primarily used for igniting arrows and pottery filled with fire, or torching bundles and hurling them into enemy lines. Greek Fire set itself apart due to its self-ignition and water resistance, making it a formidable naval weapon. Its destructive power and roaring flames evoked the apocalypse and bore no resemblance to conventional warfare tactics.
Psychologically, Greek Fire exerted an equally powerful influence, instilling fear and panic in enemy armies and fleets. These troops faced a seeming supernatural force, as Byzantines portrayed the weapon as a divine punishment.
The substance was developed during a period of crisis for the empire in the reign of Emperor Constantine IV Pogonatos (668-685). Given the failed attempts to restore the empire to its former glory, Constantine was met with a new threat: Arab warriors who had conquered the eastern territories post-prophet's death. Greek Fire appeared at an opportune moment, as Theophanes Confessor, a chronicler of the time, reported, "The architect from Heliopolis in Syria, Kallinikos, invented the liquid fire that set the Arab ships ablaze and burned them and their crews."
The material would spontaneously combust upon contact with air, creating a sticky mass that adhered to everything it touched. Hides soaked in vinegar or stale urine provided the only protection from this relentless burning substance. On the seas, Greek Fire proved indomitable, as it would ignite even water-soaked ships.
The Mysterious Siphon and its Application
Greek Fire was stored in containers and thrown or launched by catapults on land. At sea, a mysterious device called siphon was used for dispersion. This craftsmanship, a marvellous example of Byzantine engineering, consisted of a bronze tube connected to a bellows or pump to create pressure. A small oven pre-heated the substance before it was released through the tube. Despite attempts, the precise construction of this fire extinguisher remained a guarded secret. However, contemporary accounts point to metalwork and mechanical precision exceptional for the era.
The incendiary was propelled in bursts from the tube, creating a stream of fire up to 60 meters long that crossed through the air.
A Legacy that Inspired "Game of Thrones"
Greek Fire saw its most decisive use during the first Arab siege of Constantinople (674-678), as the Byzantine fleet decimated the attacking naval force by targeting their vessels with fire. It also safeguarded the city from capture in the second siege (717-718) by setting ablaze the Umayyad fleet, effectively turning the fire ships of Byzantium into fearsome, fire-breathing monsters.
Anna Komnene recounts a later deployment under Emperor Alexios I in her work Alexias: "The liquid fire, expelled through the mouths of the beasts through tubes, seemed as if the lions and other monsters were spitting fire." Over time, they destroyed several superior enemy fleets. This impression of devastation was so striking that it even inspired the series "Game of Thrones." The green-glowing "Wildfire" that incinerated an entire fleet during the Battle of Blackwater owes its inspiration to Greek Fire.
Beyond Game of Thrones, Greek Fire left its mark on historical novels, video games, and popular culture as a symbol of Byzantine power and secret technology. Recreated portable tubes were used as flamethrowers, and grapeshot was hurled to sow chaos in enemy ranks.
Today's Perspective: The Composition and Decline of Greek Fire
It is believed that Greek Fire was a combination of naphtha, sulfur, pitch, and resins, among others. To their enemies, it remained an inscrutable "devil's concoction" that they could not replicate upon capturing materials and equipment.
Upon capturing Constantinople, the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II employed heavy siege cannons for the first time, marking the dawn of Greek fire's decline. The superiority of these cannons alongside the development of armored ships and new naval tactics meant the reign of Greek Fire came to an end in the conventions of warfare.
Sources: STMU History Media, National Interest
- Napalm
- Byzantine Empire
- Constantinople
- OtherGe Greek Fire, a mixtures of natural rubber including naphtha, sulfur, pitch, and resins, was a historical technology from the Byzantine Empire that showcased the advanced science and engineering during the empire's time.
- Within the realm of medical-conditions and self-development, the fear and panic induced by Greek Fire illustrates the psychological impact of terrifying imagery in contemporary warfare tactics.
- A leading figure in finance, Mehmed II, the Ottoman Sultan, played a significant role in the decline of Greek Fire when he employed heavy siege cannons in the capture of Constantinople, marking a shift in general-news and sports events.
- In the spheres of space-and-astronomy, entertainment, and technology, Greek Fire's influence is evident in its portrayal as a source of inspiration for the "Game of Thrones" series and other popular culture representations.
- Education-and-self-development can benefit from the study of Greek Fire, offering insights into the historical military strategies of the Byzantine Empire, as well as understanding its decline and the rise of alternative tactics in finance and warfare.
